Gubar Yu.S., Ponkratova I.Y., Lbova L.V.

Formulation of tattoo paints from the assemblage of the Upper Paleolithic site of Ushki V (Kamchatka)

In recent times, the practice of body modification in sociocultural, psychological, and art studies contexts has gained a new impetus for research. This article presents the results of the analysis of pigments found on the surface of stone artifacts identified as tattooing tools from the assemblage of layer VII of the Upper Paleolithic site of Ushki V (13–12 ka calBP, Kamchatka Peninsula). The aim of this study is to reconstruct the formulation of paints discovered on the surface of stone tools from the collection of Ushki V, that could have been used for tattooing. The reconstruction was carried out by means of determining the composition and microstructure of the paints using scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). The conclusions about the structure of colouring substances and the composition of paints are based on the element mapping method, which allows determination of the relationships of chemical elements and establishing the chemical composition of individual components of the microstructure. Seven samples of red and yellow paint from the surface of six tools (carvers) have been thoroughly analysed. As a result, it has been found that three recipes were used for the manufacture of the pigments. The first (red paint) was based on mixing crushed mineral pigment (hematite) with organic binder of animal or vegetable origin. The second (yellow paint) implied the use of limonite, organic binder and a thickener (aluminosilicate material or crushed bone). The third recipe (dark orange paint) included the compound of limonite and organic binder without thickener. The comparison of the formulations with previously obtained data on the analysis of paints from Ushki V allows for the conclusion that there were continuous technological traditions determined by the desired color and purpose of the paint. It has been established that the formulations have analogies both among the assemblages of other Stone Age sites of Eurasia and in ethnographic materials. Theoretical and practical significance of this research lies within extending of focused studies of the culture of peoples of the North and initiating of comparative research into similar Late Paleolithic and Neolithic complexes in the territories adjacent to Kamchatka and in the New World.

Keywords: Kamchatka, the Upper Paleolithic, paints, tattooing, elemental mapping, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.

 

Serikov Yu.B.

The use of point-impact techniques in stone processing (pecking) in the sites of forest Trans-Urals

For processing of stone and manufacture of tools, ancient man mastered a variety of methods and techniques — beating, splitting into flakes and plates, impact and spin retouching, grinding, sawing, drilling and some others. Of these, the least studied and insufficiently covered in the literature is the point-impact technique (pecking). Pecking could have been used both as an auxiliary technique and as the main one. When processing large tools (axes, adzes, pestles), which subsequently were polished, it was an auxiliary method. But when making a circular groove for tying and hollowing out a blind or through hole, it would have become the main one. In the forest Trans-Urals, the pecking technique was already known in the Mesolithic. A treasure hoard containing six stone axes has been found at the Mesolithic settlement of Ogurdino (Perm Krai). The axes were treated by beating and pecking techniques, followed by partial surface polishing. Also, two axe blanks with lugs (trunnions) from the site of Beregovaya IX in the Gorbunovsky peat bog (Sverdlovsk Region) belong to the Mesolithic. The edges of the tools and the protruding lugs were processed by pecking. A perforated disk-pommel in the shape of a kind of disguise was found in the Late Mesolithic layer of the 2nd Beregovaya site in the Gorbunovsky peat bog. A rounded hole 2.8–3.1 cm in diameter was made in the center of the disc by deep pecking on both sides. The majority of the items processed by pecking were found on mixed sites and date to a wide chronological range from the Neolithic to Bronze Age. Some of them represent accidental single finds. Stone sculptures, tops of maces, axes, adzes, plows, chisels, pestles, fishing sinkers, “ironings” were processed using point-impact retouching. Tying lines on hammers made of massive pebbles were designed exclusively by pecking. During the Early Iron Age, the pecking technique only further expanded its application. Moreover, it was used not only for shaping products, but for making complex figured ornaments on sculptures and bas-reliefs.

Keywords: forest Trans-Urals, point-impact technique, Mesolithic — Early Iron Age, mineral raw materials.

 

Lychagina E.L., Demakov D.A., Kulkova M.A., Tomilina E.M., Batueva N.S.

Results of petrographic analysis of stone assemblage from the Kosa Mesolithic sites (Northern Kama region)

In this paper, the results of petrographic analysis of stone materials from the Mesolithic sites of Kosa 1–3 in the northern Kama River area (Perm Region) are discussed. The sites of Kosa 1 and 2 are located on the second terraces of the Lolog and Kosa Rivers, and Kosa 3 — on the first terrace of the Kosa River. Kosa 1 and 2 are considered chronologically similar and belong to the Late Mesolithic period. The site of Kosa 3 is younger, and it marks the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic. For the analysis, aimed at determining the ancient raw material strategies, selected were five stone artifacts from Kosa 1, five stone artifacts from Kosa 2, and eight samples from Kosa 3. Polarised microscopy was used for the petrographic study of stones in thin sections. This method allows the precise diagnosis of minerals and rocks based on their optical characteristics. The results indicate that flint and jasper were applied as main raw materials at all analysed sites. The choice of material for the stone industry at the sites was limited. Sandstone and siltstone were used for production of stone macro tools. The difference in raw source materials was determined for the Kosa 1 and Kosa 2 sites on one hand, and Kosa 3 on another — the main raw sources at the Mesolithic sites were flint and jasper, while at the Kosa 3 transitional site coloured pebbly flint was used. The comparison of the results with petrographic data from other Mesolithic sites of this region demonstrates similarity in the main principles of the strategy of raw source choices such as using flint and jasper. Furthermore, a larger variety of source raw materials has been determined for the sites of the Middle Kama River basin. The comparison with the results from the Late Stone Age sites also revealed a greater variety in the materials used in comparison with the Kosinsk sites (platy flints, cherts, tuffs, gabbro, and others). All raw materials were of local origin such as alluvial deposits of the Lolog and Kosa Rivers. The results of the petrographic analysis suggest the situational choice of materials for the manufacture of tools by the local population, with the main factor being their easy accessibility.

Keywords: Upper Kama region, Late Mesolithic, sites, petrographic analysis, jasper, flint.

 

Kalieva S.S., Logvin A.V., Logvin V.N., Shevnina I.V.

The structure of the community according to the data from the Bronze Age burial ground of Bestamak

The Bestamak burial ground is located in the center of the Turgai trough, which connects the West Siberian and Turanian plains. The data obtained during its study suggests that of all prehistoric sites, closest to Bestamak is the well-known Sintashta largest burial ground (Sintashta mogila; SM). The analysis of combinations of versions of artifacts in the graves of the burial ground shows that the community that formed it developed peacefully without major cataclysms over the lifetime of three generations of leaders. This gives us an opportunity of trying to reconstruct the social aspects of its functioning. This article represents such an attempt. The social heterogeneity of the community can be seen starting from the peculiarities of the burial structures. Some of the members were buried on a special ritual-sacrificial slot of the burial ground, without a moat. Unfortunately, it is unclear whether they formed a separate group during their lifetime or whether the selection was carried out as the moment arose. At the same time, the property qualification was not in effect, and the attempt to exclude the most able-bodied age group can be observed. The latter suggests not a random, but rather purposeful selection of candidates for a special burial. The absolute predominance of axe-adzes and quiver sets of arrows in male burials demonstrates the leading role of men in the most important aspects that ensured the very possibility of the existence of the community. The main tools of women's labor (knife, needle and piercer) show that a significant proportion of their activities was sewing, and normally their production-household work was taking place within the settlement. However, in two female burials (graves 10 and 51) quiver sets of arrows were found, and in two (graves 51 and 111) axeadzes. These findings demonstrate the possibility of involvement of women in almost all aspects of functioning of the community and, accordingly, allow us to assume their rather high social status. Two main social strata can be observed within the community. Elite burials are often marked by a pair of intact horse skeletons placed above the burial chamber. These are considered to be an important feature of the “chariot complex”. Since in our case pairs of horses were found not only in single male burials, but also in single female ones (graves 26 and 35), as well as in the burials of adults with children (graves 20 and 170), it appears we are dealing not just with charioteers themselves, but rather with the elite (“equestrian”) segment of the community, whose representatives had the right and opportunity to use chariots. Ordinary community members (“shepherds”) did not have the right for a chariot, moreover, their burials did not contain a horse sacrifice. They dealt with small and large cattle in the meantime providing for the needs of the “equestrian” ones. The elite supplied ge-neral civil (sign of a mace), military (sign of a battle ax), and ritual-sacred (sign of a sickle) leaders, as well as those in metal production (sign of a blower nozzle). In the ritual-sacred sphere, it was sometimes possible for a woman to perform the functions of a leader. Initially, in each of these areas, the leaders were separate. At some stage of the development of the community, this changed. In burial 140, the deceased is accompanied by a pair of horses, a chariot, a mace, a battle axe, sickles, other metal items (15), a quiver set of arrows, etc. It appears that during his lifetime he possessed the fullness of civil, military and ritual-sacred power, which was supported by the ability to operate significant, on a community scale, material resources. There is a reason to believe that property differentiation was interconnected with the hierarchy system. The “equestrian” members clearly had the opportunity to consume a larger share of the social product than the “shepherds”.

Keywords: Bestamak, Sintashta, Petrovka, hierarchy, mace, battle axe, sickle, blower nozzle, ax-adze

 

Golovchenko N.N., Pilipenko S.A.

A birchbark anthropomorphic article from the Early Iron Age Novotroitskoye necropolis in the Upper Ob

This paper discusses a burial doll discovered within the Early Iron Age necropolis of Novotriotskoye-1 during field research by the expedition of Barnaul State Pedagogical Institute under the direction of A.P. Umanskii in the Talmensky District of Altai Krai. The object found in a woman's burial is an anthropomorphic image with wingshaped arms and schematically indicated facial features, namely prominent eyes, eyebrows, nose and gouged mouth. The purpose of this work is to publish the Novotriotskoye idol in high quality, since in various publications by A.P. Umanskii and co-authors it was presented only in schematic drawings. Cleaning the object from field dirt, undertaken by the authors, made it possible to better observe the stylistic features of the artifact. Furthermore, the authors made an attempt to create experimental stylistic replicas of the analysed article. Three scenarios of its production have been implemented, and the details are presented in this publication. The authors suggest that the schematic exterior of the Novotriotskoye object allows considering it as a peculiar burial doll. The iconography of the Novotriotskoye anthropomorphic image has been characterized in the context of connections of the Upper Ob River region population of the second half of the 1st mil. AD with the cultures of Northern Asia (Tashtyk, Kokel, “Bulan-Koby”). A wide range of archaeological and ethnographic parallels to the discussed anthropomorphic object has been analyzed. The authors conclude that the routine production of anthropomorphic images and masks was deeply rooted in the Ob River region, and it appeared in the Early Iron Age. Earlier, we came across an opinion, that its origins need to be searched for among the cultures of Southern Siberia — mainly Khakass-Munusinsk Basin and Eastern Siberia. The discovery of the studied birchbark image in the Novotriotskoye necropolis includes the Upper Ob River region into the potential areas of formation of this tradition.

Keywords: Upper Ob region, Early Iron Age, Novotroitsk necropolis, birch bark image, funeral rites.

 

Najafov Sh.N., Kirichenko D.A., Аsadov V.А.

Kurgans of Gazanbulag

This article presents the results of rescue archaeological excavations carried out in November 2015 — January 2016 (following the program of archaeological research in new building sites, within the framework of the South Caucasus Pipeline Expansion project) near the Gazanbulag River, in the Borsunli kurgan cemetery, and the samples of material culture of the ancient Azerbaijan population identified within the site. The surveyed area is located about one kilometer north from the village of Veyisli, on the right side of the highway leading to the district center — the city of Goranboy (Goranboy district, the Republic of Azerbaijan), at an altitude of 219 m.a.s.l. During the archaeological exploration work carried out in 2013, about 30 burial mounds were discovered on the territory of the Borsunlu “Camp” and near the Gazanbulag River. In 2015–2016, nine burial mounds were excavated at the “Camp” site. All these mounds had a covering consisting of medium and large stones. The space between the stone rows of mounds was filled with earth. Burial chambers were found in all of them except for kurgans 3 and 8. Despite the fact that mounds 7 and 9 had chambers and equipment, they did not contain human remains. In some mounds (Nos. 6, 7, 9) the burial chambers were located in the center of the mound covering, while in others (Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 5) on its slopes. In the burials, representative archaeological materials were revealed, which shed light on the study of religious beliefs, social status and life of ancient inhabitants of the analysed area of Azerbaijan. Samples of ceramic vessels found in the mounds are characteristic to the Khojaly-Gadabay archaeological culture in their shape and content. Apart from pottery, numerous bronze items of jewellery were found in the graves: bracelets, rings, earrings, diadems, flat buttons, headbands, beads. The discovered iron products are represented by knife blades and iron rod. It can be assumed that persons with a special high social status were interred in the Gazanbulag kurgan cemetery. Based on the type, structure, grave goods recovered, as well as the results of the radiocarbon analysis, the analysed burial mounds are mainly dated to the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Early Iron Age, precisely to the 10th–9th c. BC.

Keywords: Azerbaijan, Goranboy, Gazanbulag, Borsunlu, the Late Bronze — Early Iron Ages, Khojaly-Gadabay archaeological culture, kurgans, rescue archaeological excavations.

 

Matveeva N.P., Sotnikov V.A.

On the nature of the early Medieval fortified settlements in the Trans-Urals

Tobol-Ishim interfluve region (Trans-Urals). We aim at determining the functions of fortified settlements of the 4th–9th c. AD Bakal Culture. The primary objective is to identify the main features of the defensive architecture, defence and storm of settlements based on archaeological material. Fortresses-hillforts predominated over other types of sites in the Bakal Culture. Only their residential areas have been studied extensively, and the fortification lines have been discovered in trenches due to the high complexity of their study. We have eight objects that have been identified, and the series have been selected for the first preliminary conclusions. Methods for determining the protection levels of fortifications in the light of expert assessment of the state of military science in the early Medieval period (4th–9th c. AD) have been proposed. They have been used taking into consideration the following features: height of the floodplain, height of the rampart, depth of the ditch, presence of ledges, towns and bastions, the ratio of the sizes of citadel and outer territory. Hillforts differ in the sum of points in average by three times. The indicators vary as follows: the height of the floodplain from 10 to 54 m, the height of the rampart from 1.5 to 4 m, the width of the rampart from 2 to 7 m, the depth of the ditch from 0.5 to 3 m, the ratio of the citadel to outer territory sizes from 1:1 to 1:9. These figures demonstrate the different functions of the fortifications, suggesting that some of the sites were border forts (Ust-Utyak-1 and Lastochkino Gnezdo-1), some were economic and political centres (Ust-Tersyukskoye), and others were shelters for smaller settlements (Kolovskoye, Krasnogorskoye, Papskoye, Staro-Lybaevskoye, Bolshoye Bakalskoye). Improper carrying out of excavations at some of the sites may be the result of unfinished construction work.

Keywords: Middle Ages, Trans-Urals, Bakal Culture, fortifications, level of protection of hillforts.

 

Kubarev G.V.

Ornamented stirrup from the elite early Medieval burial at Balyk-Sook (Central Altai)

The article presents an ornamented iron stirrup from a rich and noble early Medieval burial in the Balyk-Sook area in the central part of the Russian Altai. This burial is unique not only for South Siberia, but also for neighborring regions, as within it, with the warrior, four horses and protective armour were found. During the course of restoration work, it was established that the arcs and the plate loop of the stirrup were originally gilded and engraved with complex floral ornamentation, the stirrup foot was decorated with gold wire inlay in the form of floral curls. This is the first find of such type in Altai. The burial containing the stirrup was radiocarbon dated to the second half of the 7th — third quarter of the 8th c. The author provides a wide range of similarities among the “status” or “ceremonial” stirrups from funerary and memorial sites of nomadic nobility, including the Kagans from South Siberia, Central Asia, and Eastern and Central Europe, including the such sites of Kagan status as Shoroon Bumbagar in Central Mongolia and Yeleke sazy in Eastern Kazakhstan, Uibat and Tashebinsk Chaatases in the Minusinsk Basin, the Pereshchepinsk hoard and the Voznesenka memorial complex in Eastern Europe, rich Avar burials in Central Europe, and others. Massive and high stirrups with a plate loop were specifically considered during the Medieval period as “status” stirrups, and in some cases they were additionally decorated with ornamentation. They could be cast in gold or silver, covered with gold or silver leaf, decorated with complex ornamentation in various techniques, or decorated with shaped cuts in the stirrup foot. While Avar stirrups, based on Byzantine coins in burials, are dated to the late 6th — early 7th c., radiocarbon dating and analogies show that Central Asian stirrups belong to a later period — second half of the 7th — 8th c., and in some cases to the 9th c. Highly ornamented stirrups from the monuments of South Siberia and Central Asia were probably made on order by Chinese masters for the Turkic-speaking nobility, or may have been received as diplomatic gifts from Tang China.

Keywords: Altai, Early Middle Ages, burial with a horse, stirrup, ornamentation, gilding, inlaying.

 

Potapova A.V., Arsenova N.E., Kashirskaya N.N., Borisov A.V.

Paleosurface studies of the remains of a building in the Mikhailovsky Cordon settlement

Pedoarchaeological study of the remains of a building on the territory of the Old Slavic site (the settlement of Mikhailovsky Cordon — the Slavic Borshevo Culture of the late 1st mil. AD) in the Voronezh region were carried out in order to obtain new data on the layout of the settlement, the type of housing building, life sustainability, economy, and residential use. The main purpose of soil research was the identification of the nature of the use of the building and the reconstruction of the economic activities in the adjacent territory. The determination of organic and mineral forms of phosphates, urease activity, and the quantity of microorganisms of various trophic groups in the ‘natopt’ (trampled soil) at the bottom of the pit and in the soil outside of the building was carried out. It has been established that the most pronounced traces of economic activity have been preserved in the soils to the west of the building where the summer stove was located. In this area, the content of phosphates reached 2 mg P2O5/g soil. The soil to the northeast of the construction pit is characterized by the accumulation of organic matter, which is confirmed not only by a high content of organic phosphorus, but also by rather high quantity of saprotrophic bacteria, indicating organic contamination of the soil, which suggests the ingress of organic substrates into the soil (manure, feces, household waste). The values of many indicators of anthropogenic activity inside the building turned out to be unexpectedly low. As such, the low content of phosphates, saprotrophic bacteria and keratinophilic fungi in the analysed ‘natopt’ in the building at the bottom of the pit indicate a low intensity, or periodic use of the premises.

Keywords: Borshevo Culture, Middle Ages, ancient settlement, construction pit, anthropogenic activity, phosphate content, urease activity.