Shnaider S.V., Kasparov А.К., Filimonova Т.G., Markovskii G.I., Baranova S.V., Chernonosov А.А., Koval V.V., Fedorchenko А.Yu.

In the end of the 1st millennium BCE, in the lower Ishim River basin, the events were taking place that turned out to be groundbreaking in the history of Western Siberia. As in the bordering southern-taiga and forest-steppe territories of the Tobol and Irtysh river basins, under the changing environmental conditions and increasing migration flow from the taiga regions, there begins the development of cultures precursive to the establishment of the cultural formations of the Early Iron Age. The representatives of the tradition of crossed ornamentation of ware, penetrating into the forest-steppe, commingled with the indigenous Late Bronze Age pastoralist population. The developed, as a result, complexes and cultures of Ust’-Utyak, Krasnoozerka, Late Irmen, and Zavyalovo, according to the materials, represent the stages within the timeframe of the Transitional Period, which, in our opinion, continued until the formation of established Sargatka and Bolsherechenskaya Cultures. In the lover Ishim basin, transition from the Bronze to Iron Age, as it would seem, spans the period from the formation of the Krasnoozersk Culture (the Ishim basin variant), including the stages of its development — Efimovo, Borki, Marai, and Likhachevo,— until the emergence of Sargatka complexes. In the population of the Lower Lower Ishim basin and bordering territories, taiga traditions retain — building of fortified settlements with above-ground dwellings was in common practice, burials were performed in earthen graves or there was another type of interment. There appears to be a rapid change of the material culture. It would seem that from the 4th c. BCE a reorientation towards the tradition of the forest-steppe and steppe cultures was taking place. There appear ground-deepened dwellings and a ceremony of burial under kurgan mounds. Similar processes with various nuances can be observed virtually across the entire forest-steppe and southern-steppe belt of Western Siberia.

Keywords: Lower Ishim region, Transition Period, Krasnoozerka Culture, complexes of the Efimovo, Borki, Marai, Likhachevo stages, development process, periodization.

 

Seregin N.N., Matrenin S.S.

An experience of social interpretation of the materials from the pre-Turkic necropolis of Choburak-I (Northern Altai)

The paper concerns the main aspects of social interpretation of a series of burials excavated as part of the pre-Turkic period necropolis at the site of Choburak-I. This complex, investigated by the expedition of the Altai State University, is located in Chemalsky District of the Altai Republic. The burial ground of the Bulan-Koba Culture comprises 12 burial mounds arranged in a compact group. Each of these contained an undisturbed human burial with or without a horse. The analysis of the retrieved accompanying inventory, involving the results of radiocarbon dating, allowed it to determine the chronology of the necropolis within the middle — second half of the 4th century CE. The excavation materials turned out to be highly informative for the study of various aspects of the social history of the population of Northern Altai in the pre-Turkic period. It has been established that the accompanying grave goods was the main marker of the social stratification of the ‘Bulan-Kobins’. A ‘special’ social status of a 13- to 15-year-old adolescent from mound No. 29a was revealed, which was indicated by the completed formal transition of this individual to an adulthood with retention of certain restrictions due to the lag in physical development. Based on the sets of jewellery and horse equipment, all women had an above-average social status. Meanwhile, the deceased female buried in barrow No. 34 occupied a highest possible position and, probably, was a member of a local nomadic elite. The social stratification of men was reflected in the qualitative and quantitative composition of weapons and personal and horse equipment. The analysis of mutual occurrence of various categories of goods allowed the identification of three social groups: (i) warrior leaders or highly-distinguished professional warriors (mounds Nos. 30, 30a and 38); (ii) a professional warrior with a high material wealth (mound No. 32); and (iii) members of the prosperous stratum of the civil population (mounds Nos. 31, 31a and 34a). The data obtained support a conclusion that the necropolis of the Bulan-Koba Culture at the site of Choburak-I was left behind by members of local nomadic elite of Northern Altai of the pre-Turkic period. The performed study refines the conventional views on the nature of social processes that were taking place in the territory of Altai at the turn of the late antiquity and Early Middle Ages, as well as demonstrates further prospects for complex reconstructions involving a wide range of specialists.

Keywords: Altay, Bulan-Koba Culture, pre-Turkic times, social interpretation, demographic structure, necropolis.

 

Sultanova М.N., Kubaev S.Sh.

Hairstyles of the Early Medieval Sogdiana (by the materials of carved wood from Kafirkala)

Hairstyles of the Early Medieval Sogdiana (by the materials of carved wood from Kafirkala) One of the unique archaeological finds is represented by a charred tree with carved images, found at the settlement of Kafirkala in the Samarkand Oblast. It consists of a panel itself and several parts. The panel of a rectangular shape (measuring 124×141 cm) is composed of two boards fastened together with iron brackets. On the front of the panel, a composition of 46 human figures arranged in four tiers is carved, whilst more than 20 other characters have been identified on the other parts of the surviving fragmentary wooden elements of the decorative design. In the centre of the two upper tiers of the panel, a large figure of a goddess seated on a throne in the form of a lion couchant was placed, which all the other characters are pivoted to. According to researchers, the panel depicts worship of the goddess Nana-Anahita or a gathering of Sogdians to conduct ceremonies. This paper is aimed at the study of hairstyles of the characters of the wooden décor of Kafir-kala as indicators of the culture and living of the Sogdian population. The craftsman depicted about ten types of hairstyles which were known in Sogdiana in the Early Middle Ages. Previously, finds related to hair care (scissors, hairpins, comb) were recorded in the territory of Central Asia, but evidence of the development of this practice from sites and art objects was a rare exception. The analysis of the characters in the composition of the carved wood from Kafirkala showed a variety of hairstyles that existed amongst the population of Sogdiana. The ten types of hairstyles identified originate from ancient cultures of the Hellenistic world of Middle East, Ancient Egypt and Rome. This signifies the peculiar assimilation of different cultures in Sogdiana. At the same time, differences in the haircut styles of the characters of the Kafarkala panel from the hairstyles of the people of the Afrasiab and Penjikent murals of the 7th–8th centuries suggest that they were created relatively earlier. The fact that no long hairstyles, characteristic of the Turkic groups of the 7th–8th centuries, are shown in the Kafirkala panel provides the reason to attribute it to examples of pre-Turkic Sogdian art.

Keywords: Kafirkala, Sogd, panel, arch, Nana, Sogdians, hairstyle.

 

Zinyakov N.M. ^a, Poshekhonova O.E.

Weaponry of the upper Taz River Selkups according to metallographic studies (based on materials from the Kikki-Akki burial ground)

The paper presents the analysis of the weaponry items (108 arrowheads, 2 spearheads, and 2 glaive heads) recovered from the 17th–19th cc. burial ground of Kikki-Akki (Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Taz River) of the Upper Taz Selkups, aiming at the reconstruction of the technology of their production. With the aid of the methods of metallographic analysis, it has been established that the production of ferrous metal weapons was carried out by professional craftsmen. As raw materials, blacksmiths used malleable blooms, without special additional processing, consisting of unevenly carbonized steel and, less often, of iron or a mixture of both. Operations of smith forging of hot metal constituted the basis of the technology for the production of weapons. While doing so, the main attention was paid to finishing the external forms of the products, without using complex technological schemes. The production process, as a rule, was taking place at an optimal heating temperature. In general, weapons, although being not of a high quality, complied with technical specifications for their use.

Keywords: Northern Selkups, armament, metallographic analysis, production technology.

 

Terekhina V.V.

An experience of application of experimental-traceological analysis to ethnographic collections (the example of the ulu-knife of the Alutiiq Eskimos from Kodiak Island)

The article presents the results of a comprehensive analysis of an ulu-knife (uluchik) from the ethnographic collection of I.G. Voznesensky of the Alutiiq Eskimos from the island of Kodiak (MAE No. 593-44). The interest to this artefact was driven by application of the ethnotraceological approach to the study of ancient stone knives of Eskimos. The history of the implement, the technology of its production and use can be reconstructed on the basis of synthesis of different types of sources, including ethnography. However, the use of ethnographic data often raises skepsis amongst researchers, since the methods of economy management are determined not only by climate and landscape, but also by many other factors that are not possible to be reconstructed. Ethnographic data can also be inconsistent and therefore require verification. In the case of work tools, verification is carried out using the experimental-traceological method and by drawing analogies from independent sources. Through the use of this approach, it has become possible to determine its real functional use as a knife, refuting the information that it was used for hide processing. It is interesting to note that knives of a similar morphology were attributed as knives for fish filleting and cutting frozen meat. The search for analogies also allowed it to expand the already known distribution area of this knife type. It was in demand by the Alutiiq Eskimos, Tanaina Indians, and the Tlingits, amongst whom close trade ties were noted. As a result of the conducted experiments, it was possible to clarify the description of the manufacture of a blade from hardened and non-hardened steel. Following the ethnographic data, a preference was given to saw blades made of hardened steel, since they retained their sharpness longer, whereas a blade made of non-hardened metal could bend under pressure when working on hard material. However, cutting hardened steel manually using a gad picker or a chisel is very labour-intensive without pre-treatment, and, as a rule, in such cases metal tempering is employed. Experiments on cutting frozen fish and meat demonstrated greater efficiency and ergonomics of the knife type under study.

Key words: Russian America, Alutiiq Eskimos, knife-ulu, complex methodology, ethnotraceology, reconstruction.

 

Gyurdzhoyan K.G., Tkachev Al.Al., Tkachev A.A.

In recent decades, there has been a significant increase at the number of studies aimed at the research into archaeological sites dating back to the period of active development of Siberian territories by Russian explorers. The indication of this process is the commenced Christianization of local indigenous population. The study of the burial objects of the Late Medieval and Modern Times allowed assembling representative collections of staurographic materials. The items retrieved during the study of the Num-hibya-siheri VIa burial ground reflect specific features of the use of Christian symbols in the funeral rite. Therefore, this site is considered to be an early Christian monument left behind by indigenous population of the Taz Subarctic, formed under the influence of Christian ideas that spread in the region in the 18th — early 20th century. The Num-hibya-siheri VIa burial ground is located on the right bank of the Num-hibya-siheri creek on the territory of the Mameyev Cape stow, which is 12.5 km south-east of the village of Tazovsky and 2.4 km north-west of the village of Gaz-Sale of the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Tyumen Oblast. In 2017–2018, Tazovsky Archaeological Expedition of the Institute of the Problems of Northern Development of the Tyumen Scientific Research Center (Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences) uncovered 286 m2 of the site. Within the studied area, nine underground pits were investigated, containing the burial of an adult (?) and children (8) aged from newborn infants up to 5- to 7-year-olds. The main components of the funeral rite and inventory testify to the familiarity of the people, who left this burial ground behind, with Christian customs and Christian ritualism. The deceased children are buried in wooden coffins placed inside composite wooden structures, on their backs, with their heads oriented to the western side of the horizon. The interred children are accompanied by an icon pendant with an image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and crosses dedicated to the Great Martyr Barbara and crucified Jesus. The features of the funeral rite and the placement of the articles indicate an initial stage of the Christianization of autochthonous population, combining both Christian and pagan components in the process of burying children. A good preservation of the wooden funerary structures allowed selection of wood samples for dendrochronological (tree-ring) analysis, as a result of which the time interval of the functioning of the Num-hibya-siheri VIa burial ground was determined within the second quarter of the 19th — early 20th century.

Keywords: Modern Times, the Taz Arctic, burial ground, burial, icon, pectoral cross, Christianization.

 

Koksharov S.F., Zykov A.P., Yakovleva E.A.

Rogozhinskiy A.E., Kaldybayeva G.A.

On the boundaries of “Zhetysu” and “Semirechye” in scholarly works, Kazakh folklore and general fiction

The article summarizes the results of the study of the macrotoponyms ‘Zhetysu’ and ‘Semirechye’ (South-Eastern Kazakhstan) widely used in archaeological science and oriental studies since the second half of the 19th century up until the present time. The aim of the study is to advance the research on the clarification of the toponyms ‘Zhetysu’ and ‘Semirechye’ and to propose their proper use in the archaeological science. In this paper, we expand the range of the sources in order to verify the main provisions of the previous study on the materials of Kazakh folklore and literature of the 19th — early 20th c. The results of the focused study are the following: the term ‘Zhetysu’ originated in the end of the 18th — beginning of the 19th century, before its Russian translation as ‘Semirechye’. Initially, ‘Zhetysu’ denoted difficult sections of caravan roads in the north and south-east of Kazakhstan, along which Russia’s international trade with Middle Asia and China was carried out. The toponym ‘Semirechye’ appeared around 1825 and was first used as a geographical name of the Southern Balkhash region, and after the creation of the Semirechenskaya Oblast (1867) it designated its administrative-territorial boundaries. In the latter meaning, the toponym was used until the 1930s. Since the 1930s, A.N. Bernshtam, breaking with the historiographic tradition, introduced into scientific discourse an erroneously extended meaning of ‘Semirechye’, which includes the Chu-Talas interfluve. In the Kazakh folklore, the toponym ‘Zhetysu’ appeared not earlier than the last third of the 19th century, as the Kazakh translation of ‘Semirechye’ after creation of the Semirechenskaya Oblast. The lack of understanding by Kazakh authors of the concrete territorial boundaries of ‘Zhetysu’ makes the synonymous replacement of the toponym ‘Semirechye’ incorrect. The current administrative region of Zhetysu occupies a part of Semirechye, i.e., South-Eastern Kazakhstan, that includes only the territory north of the Ili River.

Keywords: historical geography, toponyms, historiography, Zhetysu, Semirechye, South-Eastern Kazakhstan, Kazakh folklore.