Degtyareva A.D.

Technology of manufacturing copper and bronze tools of the Petrovka Culture of the Southern Trans-Urals and Middle Tobol region

The article presents the results of metallographic analysis of the Petrovka Culture tools from the southern Trans-Urals and Middle Tobol River region of the 19th–18th centuries BC (47 items). A certain correlation has been determined between the functional purpose of an item, the type of raw material, and the tool manufacturing scheme. The tools were mainly made of copper contaminated with impurities, obtained from oxide-carbonate ores with the addition of chalcocite-covellite minerals. A butted axe, sickles, knives with handles, tanged chisels, hooks, and some awls were made of copper, both by casting in a mold with subsequent finishing and by forming forging. Copper tools obtained by casting often had casting defects — shrinkage cracks and warping of the metal.In most cases, the tools were finished either in the regime of incomplete hot forging at 300–500°C, or hot forging at 600–800°C and pre-melting temperatures of 900–1000°C. During the Petrovka period, tin and tin-arsenic bronze started being used for manufacturing adzes, chisels, handled knives, the majority of awls, needles, spearheads, and arrows. More progressive types of alloys in terms of fluidity, filling mold without defects in the form of lowalloy tin and tin-arsenic bronzes (Sn up to 7%, As up to 4%) came from related tribes of the Petrovka Culture of Saryarka, possibly from the Petropavlovsk Ishim region. The resulting castings were of high quality with smooth surface without metal warping defects. Subsequent finishing was carried out by selecting optimal heat treatment regimes mainly at 600–800°C or 900–1000°C, as well as using incomplete hot forging at 300–500°C. The hardness of the tools finished by forging with heating significantly exceeded the microhardness of the processed copper by 1.5–2 times.

Keywords: Bronze Age, metal tool manufacturing technology, Southern Trans-Urals, Middle Tobol, Petrovka Culture, metallographic analysis.

 

Artemyev D.A., Degtyareva A.D., Kuzminykh S.V., Orlovskaya L.B., Alaeva I.P., Vinogradov N.B.

Chemistry of tin bronzes and possible sources of tin in the Urals and Kazakhstan in the Late Bronze Age

The article discusses geochemical groups identified according to the results of the LA-ISP-MS analysis of tin bronzes of the Ural-Kazakhstan region of the Late Bronze Age. Based on the statistical analysis of 13 impurity elements of 74 bronze and tin-containing copper products from the sites of the 2nd — early 1st mil BC in the Southern Trans-Urals and Northern Kazakhstan, seven chemically contrasting groups have been identified, which mark various types of tin sources. A significant part of the metal reflects the polymetallic nature of tin deposits, which are probably associated with the structures of Northern and Central Kazakhstan, where tin was mined together with copper ores. The second part of the sample — without a clear correlation of tin with other metals — reflects the cassiterite type of ores. It clearly shows the correlation As-Co-Ni±(Sb, Fe, Au), which is characteristic of the copper deposits of the Urals, indicating the alloying of the Ural copper ores with cassiterite master alloys. Data on tin metallogeny, ore chemistry, types of deposits, and known ancient mines of Northern, Central and Eastern Kazakhstan, which could have been sources of raw materials in the metallurgy of the Late Bronze Age, are presented. The main tin-bearing structures of Kazakhstan are the Kokshetau block in the north, the Kalba-Narym zone in the east, and the Ulytau, Bulattau, Atasu, and Sarysu-Teniz structures in Central Kazakhstan. Greisen, quartz-vein and pegmatite types of primary tin deposits, accompanied by placers, are known here. The ores at the deposits are represented both by pure cassiterite (in association with quartz, wolframite, tourmaline, etc.) and by association with sulphides (chalcopyrite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, bismuthine, etc.) and copper oxide-carbonate ores.

Keywords: Late Bronze Age, Urals, Kazakhstan, tin bronze, tin, trace elements, tin deposits.

 

Kupriyanova E.V., Solomonova M.Yu., Trubitsyna E.D., Kashirskaya N.N., Kashevskaya A.O., Afonin A.S., Filimonova M.O., Ryabogina N.E.

Genesis and functions of the Late Bronze Age ash heaps in the Southern Trans-Urals in the context of new interdisciplinary research

In this article, we discuss the results of the study of ash heaps typical for the steppe belt of the Urals, Kazakhstan and Siberia. These are specific objects adjacent to settlements of the Middle and Late Bronze Age, their cultural layer contains archaeological finds and consists of loose soil similar in appearance to ash. However, debates about their nature and purpose use mainly archaeological arguments and very rarely involve interdisciplinary data. The study is focused on two ash heaps at the Bronze Age settlements in the Southern Trans-Urals — Streletskoye-1 and Chernorechye 2 (Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia). Both are located on the bank cliff, between the dwelling pits and the river; the time of their existence mainly belongs to the Alakul archaeological culture (18th–16th centuries BC). The stratigraphy and granulometric composition of soil samples, composition of archaeobotanical remains, palynological, microbiomorphic, and soil-microbiological analyses, and assessment of biomarkers content have been carried out. It has been concluded that, according to a number of characteristics, ash heaps have a non-uniform nature of formation and differ both between themselves and in comparison with the previously studied ash heap at the fortified settlement of Stepnoye. The lower part of the ash heap of Streletskoye-1 is the soil accumulated during digging of semi-dwellings. The main volume of ash heaps layers was the result of plant biomass decomposition, but there are also markers of animal origin — keratin, cholesterol. No signs of manure were found in the samples. The use of ash and combustion products has not been confirmed at these newly examined sites, as well as at the ash heap of Stepnoye. Both ash heaps were formed in more hydromorphic conditions than the Stepnoye. Taking into account the archaeological context of the ash heaps, it has been suggested that in ancient times these structures near settlements were mainly used to store hay for livestock, and occasionally as a place for butchering animal carcasses and processing bones for bone-carving. The wintering of livestock, some of which were kept in settlements, created the need for fodder to keep the animals alive. Despite many supplementary functions of ash heaps, which were used as working or dumping areas, this is perhaps the first time in the archaeological record that evidence has been found for haymaking and hay storage in the vicinity of pastoral settlements. Interdisciplinary research on the properties of ash heaps is a relatively new field, but it has already yielded interesting results that allow reasoned assumptions to be made about the construction and function of these sites.

Keywords: Southern Trans-Urals, Bronze Age, ash heap, phytoliths, pollen, geochemical composition, saprotrophic microbes, keratinophilic fungi, functional purpose.

 

Ilyushina V.V.

Pottery complex of the Alakul Culture from kurgans 1 and 14 of the Alakul cemetery: results of technical and technological analysis

Presented are the results of the analysis of pottery skills of a group of the Bronze Age Alakul Culture, who made burials under mounds 1 and 14 of the Alakul burial ground (forest-steppe Trans-Urals). The study was carried out within the framework of the historical and cultural approach and following the methodology developed by A.A. Bobrinsky. The traditional methods of making vessels that existed among potters of the analysed population have been determined, the heterogeneity of potters' views on the initial plastic raw materials has been detected, as well as some differences in the manufacture of vessels from different burial mounds at the stages of compiling moulding compounds and design. As a result of the study, the earlier assumption, based on the analysis of shape and ornamentation of the products, about the increased complexity of the composition of the analysed population at the stage of construction of mound 1 and the processes of mixing, in all likelihood, of related groups of the population who had their own traditions in the manufacture of pottery, manifested in the materials of kurgan 14, has been confirmed.

Keywords: forest-steppe zone of the Tobol river, Bronze Age, Alakul cemetery, Alakul Culture, ceramics, historical-and-cultural approach, technical and technological analysis.

 

Anoshko O.M., Gilderman A.V.

Glass products from the First and Second Gostiny excavations in Tobolsk

The article introduces a collection of glassware from the First and Second Gostiny excavations in Tobolsk. Its general characteristics, and the interpretation of well-preserved and specifically significant objects and their analogies are presented, and their origin is being determined. Referring to historical data, a brief history of the emergence and development of glass production in the Tobolsk province is shown. As a result, it has been found that the Tobolsk collection contains both products from local enterprises and imported ones — domestic, including those imitating western brands, and imported, European ones; the study also traces the change in the attitude of the urban population to objects made of glass. From high-status and rare, only accessible to well-off segments of the society in the 17th — early 18th century, they turned into everyday objects in the 19th century, widespread in the urban environment. Products of European origin, as more expensive and high-quality ones, continued to represent objects of prestigious consumption, sought after to emphasize the one’s high position in society.

Keywords: Tobolsk, 17th–18th centuries, historical and archaeological sources, glass products.

 

Selin D.V. , Lebedintsev A.I., Grebenyuk P.S., Fedorchenko A.Yu.

Pottery traditions of the Old Bering Sea Culture of the Chukchi Peninsula (based on materials from the Chini cemetery)

Here we present the results of the technical and technological analysis of pottery from one dugout (4 vessels) and 22 graves (23 vessels) of the Chini cemetery (Chukchi Peninsula). We found that potters of the Old Bering Sea Culture used mainly ferruginous, weakly sanded clay in the production of pottery. Two recipes for moulding clay were found in the dugout and five in the burial ground. The construction of the hollow body was made by patchwork layering, presumably on a base mould. Smooth or embossed knockout was used for shaping. The surfaces were worked by troweling. Five vessels from different burials demonstrate the effect of residual plasticity of molding mass. The area of the Chini cemetery was used by different groups of the Old Bering Sea Culture with different pottery traditions. At least three different groups can be distinguished, which used different recipes for the moulding mass. The absence of hybrid recipes indicates that there was no mixing of pottery skills between these groups. Similar pattern is also characteristic for the pottery found in the dugout. The spatial context of the cemetery shows that different groups of the Old Bering Sea Culture developed different parts of the Chini cemetery. Group 1 built their tombs in the northeastern part of the cemetery, while Group 2 — mainly in the central part. Burials of Group 3 are located on the periphery of the cemetery. Pottery of groups 2 and 3 existed at the same time, as two vessels made from two different recipes were found in burial 8. Presented information reveals the dynamic history of a distinct group of Neo-Eskimos who left the Chini cemetery. These data indicate a significant influence of ancient populations related to Paleo-Eskimos and ancestors of the Chukchi on this group, and also suggest participation of women of various communities in pottery production.

Keywords: archaeology, Chukotka, Chini cemetery, Old Bering Sea Culture, ceramics, technical and technological analysis.

 

Tabarev A.V.

Anangula before and after: to the 50th anniversary of Soviet-American archaeological expedition on the Aleutian Islands

The purpose of this work is to analyze the events in scientific life that preceded and followed the first Soviet-American archaeological expedition to the Aleutian Islands 50 years ago (1974) and the excavations of the Anangula Site, the materials of which date back to ca. 9,000 years ago. The used sources include various publications by Russian and foreign authors, highlighting the key episodes of international dialogue and the stages of the formation of American studies in the Kunstkamera (St. Petersburg), the Institute of Ethnography (Moscow), and the Institute of History, Philology and Philosophy (Novosibirsk), as well as the information on the participation of Russian scientists, with reports, at major international forums, periodicals, and scientific chronicles, freely available archival data, and also records from family collections. The dynamics and forms of academic cooperation between Russian and North American archaeologists and ethnographers (exchanges of visits, conferences, exhibitions, joint projects, publications) are traced during different stages — in the 1900s–1930s, 1950s–1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. The initial period featured the interest of the American side in the study of materials from Siberia and Northeast Asia in the person of such specialists as A. Hrdlicka, F. Rainey, and W. Laughlin, and the late 1960s period — the institutional, structural, and thematic development of American studies in several scientific centers in Russia. The specifics of changes in the structure of financing, and the role of the grant system (Russian and foreign scientific foundations) since the 1990s are noted. As a result, a number of conclusions have been drawn about the regularity of the appearance and implementation of the project on the Aleutian Islands, the role of Siberian researchers (A.P. Okladnikov, A.P. Derevianko, R.S. Vasilievsky) in the development of such areas as American studies and Pacific archaeology in science and education, the long-term effect of the “Anangula legacy” for the next generations of Russian and North American archaeologists, as well as about the current state of the research in the area.

Keywords: Pacific archaeology, American studies, international cooperation, conferences, publications, specialization.

 

Tkacheva N.A., Semenova V.I., Tkachev A.A.

“Spot” archaeological studies in the research on history of city (based on materials of excavations in Tyumen in 2006)

In historical cities, the cultural layer takes an important place in providing research in humanities with new sources of a wide spectrum. The purpose of this article is to introduce the results of excavations in 2006 during the construction of a shopping and entertainment mall on Lenin Street with an area of 58 m2, located on the slope of a ravine near the building of the museum of local lore, that is, on the periphery of the borders of historical Tyumen. Large area of the excavation was crosscut by late housing development, which casted doubts on the possibility of discovery of undisturbed objects at the site. As a result of carried out research, the remains of four buildings located along the edge of the ravine were examined. Within the layer, tools informative on activities of inhabitants of the buildings were discovered. Pottery and clothing finds from intact layers date back to the 17th century. Despite the small area of the examined cultural layer, valuable information has been obtained about the beginning of living of citizens, their adaptation to new conditions and remarkable survival. Residents of the city used, for economic purposes, objects made of bone, birch bark, broken glass, fragments of which show traces of secondary use as a strickle, scraper, and polisher. Also found were objects documenting their cultural contacts with the local population (arrowhead, bead). The effectiveness of the study shows that the practice of analysis of the cultural layer is necessary for all construction works in the historical areas of the city. In Tyumen, the system of “spot” excavations is the only way to avoid losing valuable sources related to the research of the early history of the city.

Keywords: Tyumen, cultural layer, 17th–18th centuries, rescue excavations, residential development.

 

Chikunova I.Y., Askeyev I.V., Shaymuratova D.N.

The main results of the research on the cultural layer of the Samarovsky Yam settlement (Khanty-Mansiysk)

In 2016, archaeological excavations were carried out for the first time in the settlement of Samarovsky Yam (Khanty-Mansiysk) directed by I.Yu. Chikunova. The cultural layers of the 17th–20th centuries have been studied. This publication introduces the information and materials obtained during the excavations, and the results of the analysis of fish remains. Evidence has been found of the great flood of 1771, which left a thick sterile layer. This layer separated the cultural deposits of the 18th century. Stratigraphic data, coupled with the analysis of distribution of various finds of wood, leather, metal, and molded, pottery and glazed ceramic ware, make it possible, in support of archival data, to trace on specific material the economic structure and changes in the level of economy of the first Russian population of Samarovsky Yam. Archaeoichthyological material is also a valuable informative archaeological source. The fish remains helped to clarify the species, size, age, and time of catching fish in the past. The study of the fish bone and scale remains made it possible to establish that whitefish species predominated in the net fishing of the population of the Samarovsky Yam.

Keywords: Khanty-Mansiysk, Samarovo, Samarovsky Yam settlement, rescue archaeological excavations, comprehensive research, archaeological finds, fish remains.

 

Zimina O.Yu., Kostomarov V.M.

The use of electromagnetic and laser scanning methods at the sites of the Bronze to Early Iron Age transition in the Tura-Pyshma interfluve (Trans-Urals)

The article introduces into scientific discourse the results of reconnaissance studies of the hillfort of Plamya Sibiri 1, located in the Tura-Pyshma interfluve. The hillfort belongs to the Plamya Sibiri complex of sites located on the right bank of the Tura River; it is attributed to the eastern variant of the Itkul Culture and, within the framework of its chronology, is dated to the end of 8th–7th centuries BC. Geophysical survey (electromagnetic and airborne laser scanning) and excavations of one of the structures have been carried out at the site. During the investigation of the Plamya Sibiri 1 hillfort, materials typical for the sites of the eastern variant of the Itkul Culture were obtained. The remains of a partially surveyed building of frame and pillar structure without a pit, which left a hole in the ground of 0.2–0.4 m in diameter and 0.15–0.3 m in depth, were recorded on the mainland. The building was surrounded by pits-quarries, which served for taking soil for filling walls. No hearth was found within the investigated part of the structure. Fragments of ceramic vessels with an appearance characteristic to the second type of pottery of the Itkul Culture (Iset Culture, according to V.A. Borzunov) were found in the territory of the structure. The radiocarbon date GV-03320 2865 ± 29 BP (non-calibrated), obtained from the charcoal from the remains of the structure, belongs to the turn of the Bronze and Iron Ages. The first results of electromagnetic and laser scanning have also been obtained. The use of LiDAR to search for large, poorly defined in the landscape structures of the eastern variant of the Itkul Culture has shown its high efficiency. The structures (remains of ditches, ramparts and above ground structures) are well traced under the forest canopy, even despite their minimal parameters in terms of relief. Interesting are the results of electromagnetic scanning, first of all, from the methodological point of view, since not only they show certain features of the layout and architecture of the settlement, but also replenish the experience of using this type of devices in alluvial soils. It was possible to determine that this type of research is effective in terms of detecting anomalies characterizing individual elements of residential and fortification structures, which can be recorded at frequencies associated with the upper horizons — no deeper than frequencies of 13 and 12, which have shown to be the most informative. The issues of dating and cultural affiliation of the monuments of this circle require further research.

Keywords: Trans-Ural region, Tura-Pyshma interfluve, ancient settlement Plamya Sibiri 1, eastern variant of the Itkul (Iset) Culture, ceramics, electromagnetic scanning, airborne laser scanning.