The paper observes the results of an experimental trace evidence study of metalworking tools from the sites of Ustye I (Sintashta, Petrovka Cultures) and Kulevchi III (Petrovka, Alakul Cultures). The study included running experiments on cold and hot forg of copper and bronze castings with stone tools, followed by the study of reference materials and archaeological data. Analysis of the working surfaces of the experimental tools revealed signs of wear and their dependence on the physical properties of the rock, the operation performed, and the kinematics. The analysis of ancient metalworking tools established a unified manufacturing technology, including chipping and abrasive machining. Functional groups of tools were identified, including a blacksmith's tools for cold forging and forging heated metal, and abrasive tools. A comparison of the analysed materials with data from other Bronze Age sites in the studied and adjacent territories revealed that the range of metalworking tools and the sequence of their manufacture were largely standardised. This reflects similar production processes; not only in metalworking, but in the selection of raw stone materials and stone-working techniques. However, differences have been observed in the quantitative ratio of objects, representing various stages of metal production, both among the sites under consideration and in comparison with other assemblages.

Keywords: Southern Trans-Urals, Bronze Age, metalworking, use-wear analysis, blacksmith, abrasive tools.

 

Funding. The study was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant No. 23-18-00146 «Non-ferrous metallurgy and metalworking in Northwest Asia in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC (raw materials, technologies, products, trade and communications)», https://rscf.ru/en/project/23-18-00146/.

 

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Accepted: 02.10.2025

Article is published: 15.12.2025